Issues, Challenges, Problems, and Difficulties in Teaching and Learning Literature
A. Teaching and Learning Literature
1. What is teaching?
Teaching is a social process, to define it is very difficult, because the teaching influenced by the political and social backgrounds of the country. Hence, just try for it , after reading all the definitions. There are so many educationists, complimented their definitions about teaching, Here are some, to keep in mind.
According to Gage, "Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of another person."
Edmund Amidon defined it as-" Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity."
Brubacher," Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which an individual will seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so."
Skinner- Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement."
Ryans- "Teaching is concerned with the activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of the learning of others."[1]
2. What is learning?
Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience.[2] Learning is a conscious process, and it usually takes place in the language classroom.
For Krashen it is particularly marked by two characteristics. Firstly, there is error correction. When learners make mistakes, it is normal for the classroom teacher to draw explicit attention to them, and to correct the errors. The second characteristic is what Krashen calls rule isolation. In the language teaching classroom it is normal for a lesson (or part thereof) to focus on one language point. It may be a grammatical item like a particular tense, or a pronunciation point, or some ‘rule of use’. The word isolation indicates that in this procedure language points are dealt with one by one. Again, as we shall see, L1 parents do not usually focus on individual items in this way.[3]
Thus, from the definitions above it can be concluded that learning is a process of 'a relatively permanent change in behavior based on an individual's interactional experience with its environment.
3. What is literature?
Based on David, “Literature is an art form, like painting, sculpture, music, drama, and the dance. Literature is distinguished from other arts form by the medium in which it works; language”.[4]And other opinions literature is referred to as the entirety of written expression, with the restriction that not every written document can be categorized as literature in the more exact sense of the word. The definitions, therefore, usually include additional adjectives such as “aesthetic” or “artistic” to distinguish literary works from texts of everyday use such as telephone books, newspapers, legal documents, and scholarly writings.[5]
Literature is a term use to describe written or spoken material. The term is most commonly used to refer to words of the creative imagination including works of poetry, drama, fiction and non-fiction. Literature is the art of written works. It is the body of written works of a language period or culture. Literature is published in written works in a particular style or particular subject. Literature is the mirror of life. Our life and all the subject are related to our life is the subject matter or element of literature. So we can get the touch of our life trough literature.[6]
B. Problems in Teaching and Learning Literature
1. Teaching literature
Teaching literature is a subject, and a difficult one. Doing it well requires scholarly and critical sophistication, but it also requires a clear idea of what literature is, of what is entailed in reading and characterizing. It requires, in fact, some very self-conscious theorizing.[7]Teaching literature should Give priority to the appreciative activity than the knowledge of literature itself because the main purpose of teaching and learning literature is appreciate the value that contains in literature.[8]
2. Problems in teaching literature
a) Explaining Characters’ Action
Explaining characters’ action means Formulating reasons or motives having to do with the characters’ beliefs, traits, and goals, as well as the larger social and cultural meanings of those actions.
b) Interfering Symbolic and Thematic Meanings
Symbolic meanings are that the language signs, images, gesture, dress, behaviors, actions, etc. represent larger meanings. Making these interferences requires students to apply their literary know-how-that they need to go beyond the literal to implied meanings that serve some larger purpose. Students also learn to infer implied thematic meanings. Interpreting thematic meanings often involves inferring the value assumptions underlying story development.
c) Making Connection
Students are also making text-to-text and text-to-world connection, drawing on their knowledge of other text as well as their lived-world connection. Given the basic learning theory of the need to moving from the familiar-what students already know- to the unfamiliar, new practices they are learning, build on familiar practices, tools, and experiences to help them acquire new practices, tools, and experiences. One of the challenges in making connection is that the students making simply not have read much literature or may bring cultural background experiences that differ markedly from those portrayed in the literature.[9]
3. Learning Literature
Readers can get the most out of literature -- novels, poems, plays and non-fiction -- by carefully studying and analyzing texts. Learning the tools of literary analysis makes previously inaccessible texts interesting and meaningful. Different schools of thought throughout the centuries from Plato to Derrida have promoted different methods of studying literature, which can make knowing where to turn for instruction daunting. Consider a literary text on a series of levels, beginning with plot as the most basic level, then elements such as narration and character next, and finally taking into account how all of these levels of complexity work to create a whole text.
How to learn and analyze the literature:
1. Identify the plot of the novel, story or poem. Plot denotes an event or series of events. Traditionally, the events in a story follow a particular pattern: introduction, conflict, rising action, climax and falling action. This formula makes a story riveting as tension increases until a final explosive finale from which the reader cannot turn away. Note if the story departs from plot conventions, such as in the case of a cliff-hanger ending or a plot that jumps around in time. Consider the effect of such a structural decision on the reading experience.
2. Determine the identity of the narrator. Every story and poem has a narrator. A narrator is the person telling the story, giving the reader the information about the events, characters and settings in a story. Literary scholars categorize narrators by the amount of insight they possess. A third-person omniscient narrator can see into every character's thoughts and knows everything about the world presented in the story. A third-person limited narrator knows some characters' thoughts while a first-person narrator knows only her own thoughts. A first-person narrator is usually the main character of the story.
3. Study the characters. The main character of a story is the protagonist; the person who creates problems for him is called the antagonist. Jot down notes about the features and personalities of major and minor characters. Note if their characters develop throughout the story or if they remain the same.
4. Examine the setting of the novel. The setting is the place and time in which a story occurs. The setting gives the reader information about the events that occur and the worldviews the characters espouse. An otherworldly setting indicates that the text belongs to the fantasy or science-fiction genre.
5. Identify symbolic language and images in the novel, short story, play or poem. Authors do not convey all of their ideas literally. By using such figurative devices as metaphor or hyperbole, authors can express a more nuanced perspective of a thing or idea. Symbols require readers to use their imagination to see a thing or idea the way the author wants her to.
6. Figure out what the text is about, beyond the level of plot. Themes are the abstract topics a book or poem deals with. For example, on the level of plot, "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee tells the story of a black man wrongly convicted of a crime. On a thematic level, the story tackles issues of racism, gender, small-town life, family, prejudice and childhood.
7. Piece together all the elements of a story or poem you have examined into a meaningful whole. A symbol or character is not the point of a story; they are components that work together to present a unified whole. Effective literary study picks out the particulars of a work of literature and then steps back and looks at the text more broadly, like putting together the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle and then stepping back to admire it.[10]
4. Problems in Learning Literature
In teaching English Literature in non-native contexts, the teachers and learners face certain difficulties and problems due to cultural, racial and linguistic differences. British or English cultural references are not known or familiar to the learners and hence many times they do not understand the matter as is viewed by the author.
This cultural aspect includes all such factors like geography, topography, climate, history, religion, social and personal relationships, habits of thoughts, social values, moral codes, arts, sports and entertainments and so on.
Next is racial difference or difference of attitudes and of certain assumptions. Racial prejudices about the writer or about his country may become an obstacle in having proper understanding and learning of English Literature or literature of any non-native language.
Then the literature produced in long past with past references and ideas may create misunderstanding in the minds of learners as to the relevance of such materials. Such works are seen to be outdated topics to learn.
In addition, if the learner is not familiar with the history or social upheavals of that country (England), with such references he may feel it all strange and even out of his range of understanding.
Therefore, the teacher’s aim should be to direct students’ efforts and help them to see literature, themselves, and their environment in perspective.[11]Part of this job is to induce students to learn to feel what the author has tried to relate to the readers, for the study of literature deals with feelings as well as ideas. Pattison agrees with Lewis that the aim in a literature class is to respond to the writer’s intention. Here, the students must concentrate on what the author is saying and the attitude he wishes to extend to the reader. A writer always has a point of view regarding his characters and places. By feeling with the author, the reader gains an insight into the author’s mind. Although he may disagree with the author, the reader needs to have the ability to feel with the writer.[12]
Dekin develops this objective by adding that students must learn not only to feel with the author but also to think and to see with him in order to appreciate the work studied. It means that, the students must think with the author or understand what he is saying and also must understand the writer’s point of view.[13]
Moreover, students must find key words that will help the students to envision the person in the book and their surroundings. To see with the author, the readers or students interpret not only the outer picture of the characters but also the inner picture by understanding descriptive words and phrases.[14]
- Problems in Understanding Literature
1. Definition
Based on Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary definition of problem is a situation, person or thing that need attention and need to be dealth eith or solved.
Base on Wikipedia, definition of problem is an obstacle, impediment, difficulty or challenge, or any situation that invites resolution; the resolution of which is recognized as a solution or contribution toward a known purpose or goal. A problem implies a desired outcome coupled with an apparent deficiency, doubt or inconsistency that prevents the outcome from taking place.
Base on Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary definition of understanding is [U] knowledge about a subject, situation, etc. or about how something work.
Base on Wikipedia, definition of understanding is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object.
2. Problems in Understanding Literature
It is well known that studying literature is a difficult task that faces many students. Literary language is quite different from spoken language, so many students face serious problems in studying literature especially at the beginning of their educational journey. These difficulties could be as follows: Lack of clear aims and objectives. Undoubtedly, the one who is walking without a specific destination, will be lost in the desert. Likewise, the students who does not know the aims of studying literature is likely to be drowned in the deep sea of literature. Large numbers of students claim that, there is no benefit of studying literature as they don't need it. There are some problems make difficult for student in understanding literature consist of :
1. Use of inappropriate methods of teaching
The difficulty in understanding and appreciating literature is due to the fact that some teachers of literature don't pay attention to the appropriate methods of teaching literature, which would enable them to transfer the information to students easily. To put it differently, some teachers neither prepare questions for discussion nor give students a chance to respond to the literary texts. Thus instead of deriving pleasure and entertainment out of studying literature, students feel burdened with its implications for the exam a thing that makes them take the study of the literary work as a difficult task to accomplish.
Teaching literature requires adoption of special methods of teaching including screening of the play or the novel, or using the body language on the part of the lecturer lecturer A person who is primarily–if not entirely—involved in the teaching activities of an academic center, who is not expected to perform research or Pt management; in general, lectureships are non-tenured positions himself to animate the students to the appropriate environment of the play or the novel.
2. Random selection of texts
Choice of texts plays a crucial role in hindering or enhancing the processes of studying literature. It hinders the process of making sense of the text to students' age, interest, culture and level of study. On the contrary, an appropriate text that is in harmony with students' age, interest and so on will help them to understand and appreciate the literary work clearly. Unfortunately, some teachers select texts from an alien culture, written in incomprehensible language which obviously is beyond students' socio cultural background. As a result, students struggle hard and face a tough time to get the meaning of the text.
3. Lack of background knowledge about the author's life and the prevailing social climate
Background information that is related to the author's life. It is an established fact that background information paves the way for personal involvement. Yet most of literature students concentrate merely on the content and ignore the background of author's life and the literary characteristics which distinguish him from his contemporary writers. Consequently, they face a serious difficulty in the process of analyses and assessment and they may misinterpret . To get rid of this problem students have to get as much as necessary information about the author's life and the background of the literary text. For example, to analyze critically John Donne's poems, we ought to search through internet websites about his life and literary characteristics in order to get adequate background information that would enable us to analyze and evaluate his works properly.
The conclude of this term about problem in understanding literature role as a Teachers must play a crucial role to guide students how to use the appropriate strategies for studying literature. So that, both teachers and students should find the appropriate solution for the problems mentioned above so as to derive the sense of pleasure.
- Methods in Teaching Literature
1. Definition
Definition of method based on Oxford dictionary:
noun
• a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one: a method for software maintenancelabour-intensive production methods
• [mass noun] the quality of being well organized and systematic in thought or action: historical study is the rigorous combination of knowledge and method
• (usually Method) short for METHOD ACTING.Paula was at least hip to the Method [as modifier]: reliance on Method technique.[15]
Based on Cambridge dictionary, method is defined as a particular way of doing something.[16]
E.g. Travelling by train is still one of the safest methods of transport.
The new teaching methods encourage children to think for themselves.
While the definition of method based on Wikitionary:
Noun
Method (plural methods)
• A process by which a task is completed; a way of doing something.[17]
E.g. If one method doesn't work, you should ask a friend to help you.
This method saves me a lot of time.
2. Methods in Teaching Literature
A. Contextual learning
Contextual learning (contextual teaching and learning) aims to equip students with the knowledge that can be flexibly applied to or transferred from one problem to another problem and the context of personal, social, cultural or to other contexts (Johnson, 2002). Contextual learning relies on spatial memory. The selection of information based on the needs of individual students. Contextual learning also always associates with the prior knowledge that students already have. In practice, these lessons apply authentic assessment. Contextual learning is a learning approach that recognizes and shows the state of nature of knowledge. This approach provides a more relevant and meaningful experiences to students in developing the knowledge that it will impose a lifetime through relationships inside and outside the classroom (Ministry of Education, 2002a). This learning tries to present a concept linked with the concept of the material used, so the learning experience is more realistic and will usually has lasting power. According to Johnson (2002) there are eight contextual learning components, they are (1 create meaningful relationships, (2) perform a significant job retention, (3) learn to adjust, (4) collaboration, (5) critical and creative thinking, (6) experience individual, (7) the achievement of a high standard, and (8) using authentic assessment. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Education document (2002b :12-14) stated that contextual learning emphasizes the following points: (1) problem-based learning, (2) authentic instruction, (3) inquiry based learning, (4) project-based learning, (5) work-based learning, (6) service learning, and (7) cooperative learning.
B. Literature learning
Literature was born by the human urge to express himself on the subject of human beings, humanity, and the universe (Semi, 1993:1). Literature is the expression of life issues, philosophy, and psychology. Poets can be said to be a psychologist and a philosophy that expresses life's problems, psychology, and philosophy, not by express through literature writing techniques. Differences of letters with others lies in the literary sensibility that can penetrate human ultimate truth cannot be known to others.
Beside literature is a work of art that has the intellect, imagination, and emotions, it is also a creative work that is used as an intellectual and emotional consumption. Literatures that have been born by writers are expected to provide intellectual and aesthetic satisfaction for the reader (Spring, 1993:1).
Referring to the literature on the above understanding, naturally, the purpose of literature is also learning to inculcate human values to students. Literature can affect the power of emotion, imagination, creativity, and intellectual property so that students are developed optimally.
In the study of literature, many experts complain weaknesses of literary learning in school, such as learning materials that are only emphasize memorizing literary terms, literary definition, literary history than intimacy with literature itself. There are also less likely for teacher to master literature and its learning so they are not able to teach them. Every competence related to literature should be developed from the student, this competence through offhand and not taught. Evaluation tool for the study of literature is also less challenging and less comprehensive. Learning literature so far still feels difficult and intimidating for students. It's time for learning literature as a comfortable, challenging, and fun learning. Learning conditions that are less familiarizing students to literature make students become novels myopic, short stories myopic, shortsighted drama and poetry myopic.
C. Contextual learning literature
Contextual approach is the concept of learning that helps teachers relate the material that is taught to the real situation of students and encourage students to relate the knowledge gained by its application in daily life in the family and society. Through a contextual approach, the learning is more meaningful for students. The learning process is natural, because the students work and experience, not just a transfer of knowledge from teacher to student. Learning strategy is more important than the outcome (Nurhadi, 2003:1). Five forms of learning in the contextual method is relating learning, experiencing, applying, cooperating, and transferring. Relating is a form of learning in real life contexts. Experiencing is studied in the context of the activities of exploration, discovery, and creation. Applying is learning in the form of application experience in the use of learning outcomes and practical needs. Cooperating is learning in the form of sharing of information and experiences, responding and communicating with each other. Transferring is learning activities in the form of utilizing knowledge and experience based on the new context to gain the knowledge and new learning experience (Suparno, 2003).
Contextual learning relies on spatial memory. The selection of information is based on the needs of individual students. There is a tendency to integrate multiple fields (disciplines). Contextual learning also always associates with the prior knowledge that students already have. In practice, these lessons apply authentic assessment. The difference with conventional learning can be observed on the following description:
a. Conventional learning
1. Relying to rote
2. Selection of information is determined by the teacher
3. Tend to focus on teachers
4. Tend to focus on one area (discipline specific)
5. Provide some information to students when required
6. Assessment of learning outcomes only through academic activities such as exams and repeat.
b. Contextual learning
1. Relying on spatial memory
2. Selection of information based on the individual needs of students
3. Tend to integrate multiple fields (disciplines)
4. Always link the information already possessed prior knowledge of students
5. Implement authentic assessment through practical application in problem solving
Through this contextual method, it can be offered a variety of tips in learning literature as follows:
4.1. Relating
This form of learning literature emphasizes the study of literature in the context of the life and culture of Indonesia. Teachers should look for materials that match real life and culture of Indonesia, which took the material of Indonesian literature. This kind of learning in the long run aims to contribute to the formation of a noble culture of Indonesia.
There are some authors who worked the locality well among others such as YB Mangunwijaya in Burung-burung Manyar, Mochtar Lubis who raised locality of Kerinci in his novel Harimau-harimau. Umar Kayam’s novel The Priyayi with shades of Javanese culture, as well as lyric prose Linus Suryadi AG in Pengakuan Pariyem, and Darmanto Yatman’s poetry that is rich with nuances of Javanese culture.
Taufiq Ismail’s anthology, Benteng dan Tirani, is suitable for discussing the social, political, and culture of Indonesia in 1965 and thereafter. The poetry that is written by Sapardi Djoko Damono, Ayat-ayat Api, is appropriate for talking about the culture and conditions of Indonesia during the reform order.
In selecting materials, teachers should be a companion for their students. Materials should be appropriate to the age and mental development of students. The materials that damage the morality of students should be avoided. The existence of various sources of learning mentioned above, teachers can freely use the material for learning scenarios.
4.2. Experiencing
There are three activities in this learning model, (1) enrichment (generating ideas), (2) discovery activity, and (3) creative writing (writing).
(1) Enrichment
Before creating a work of literature, students should first enrich themselves by reading, watching, listening to anything, and walk around and enriching experience. Therefore, before writing a literary work, students should be invited to undertake activities to enrich their knowledge. Teachers and students conduct exploration activities to locate, collect, and enrich ideas. An easy way to find ideas can be reading (books, newspapers, magazines, articles, etc..), Listening (music, fairy tales, the story, etc..), Seeing (sights, events, etc..), Experiencing (boat ride , flying, hiking, shopping, etc.). Exploration activities can be selected one or coupled to the same topic.
(2) Discovery activity
This exploration activity was followed by discovery activities (discovery). This activity is formed in the invention that made the topic or theme of a literary work, the discovery of the words or phrases that trigger the creation of a literary work. Exploration activities could also be a matter of translation of ideas. This can be done with activities (1) Brainstorming, (2) grouping, and (3) writing fast. This activity is ended with the creation of works of literary activity.
3) Creative Writing
This form of learning aims to encourage creating literature. Teachers can motivate students that:
• creating literary work was easy,
• creating literary work is fun,
• creating literary work was challenging, etc.
4.3. Applying
The purpose of this learning activity is to learn to apply the experience in the use of learning outcomes and practical needs. Literary creation activities can be followed by activities that are practical and pragmatic. The drama that has been created can be followed up with the gig. Poetry, short stories, or even novels that have been made can be followed up with students staging. Poetry, short stories, or even novels that have made the students could be followed by exhibitions, magazines pasted on the wall, to be published in the school newspaper or magazine, can be sent to the mass media, or included in a literary writing contest. When all students can participate in these activities, then the self-esteem and self-confidence of students will increase.
4.4. Cooperative
Cooperating is learning in the form of sharing of information and experiences, responding, and communicating with each other. On the sidelines of the activities as done above, it is possible that speech activity is discussion and comments from the students, for the students, and by students, can be implemented as a maturation step of writing literature.
4.5. Transferring
This learning activity aims to enable students to utilize their knowledge and experience based on the new context to gain knowledge and new learning experiences. It is in accordance with the opinion of Damono (1998) that literature is a kind of art that is the crystallization of the agreed values for continually dismantled and developed in a society.
3. Conclusion
The ways of learning literature described above is actually one of the alternatives in the contextual method. Actually, the more important is the teachers should teach students in situations that are comfortable, fun, and challenging. Teachers should develop students in accordance with the conditions of his personality. The contextual based learning characteristics are as follows, based on real-world, student-centered, meaningful knowledge, solve problems and asked, formation of learning communities, collaboration, fun, exciting, integrated, using a variety of sources, students are active and critical-creative teacher, classroom walls and school hallways filled with student work, learning outcomes measured in many ways not just a test.[18]
REFERENCES
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understanding
http://www.indiastudychannel.com/forum/79268-What-definition-Teaching.aspx, accessed at 12:15 a.m., on November 25th, 2012.
Dale H. Schunk, Learning Theories; An Educational Perspective, (New York: Pearson Education inc,2012), sixth edition.
Keith Johnson. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. (New York: Pearson Education. 2008).
Tom E Kakonis, David Allan Evans, From Language to Idea: An Integrated Rhetoric, (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Inc. New York: 1971).
Mario Klarer, An Intriduction to Literary Studies, (Routledge, New York: 2005).
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_literature#ixzz28aVW5Ggt.
Ellie Chambers and Marshal Gregory, Teaching and Learning English Literature, (California: SAGE Publication Ltd, 2006).
Yus Rusyana. Metode Pengajaran Sastra. (Bandung: Gunung Larang, 1982)
Richard Beach, et al, Teaching Literature to Adolescents, (New York: Routledge, 2011), 2nd edition.
http://www.ehow.com/how_2158235_study-analyze-literature.html, accesed at 6:45 PM on November 26th, 2012.
John S. Lewis and Jean C. Sisk. Teaching English. (New York: American Book Company 1963).
Bruce Pattison. The teaching of Literature, English Language Teaching, 17:59-62. (January, 1963).
Dorothy Dakin. How to Teach High School English. (Boston D. C. Heath and Company. 1947).
http://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/linguistika/article/view/304.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/method?q=METHOD accessed on November 23, 2012 at 20.00 pm.
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/method?q=METHOD accessed on November 23, 2012 at 20.23 pm.
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/method accessed on November 23, 2012 at 21.00 pm.
http://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/linguistika/article/view/304 accessed on November 23, 2012 at 13.00 pm.
Depdiknas. 2002b. Manajemen Peningkatan Mutu Berbasis Sekolah: Pembelajaran Kontekstual. Jakarta
Johnson, Elaine b. 2002. Contextual Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc.
[1]http://www.indiastudychannel.com/forum/79268-What-definition-Teaching.aspx, accessed at 12:15 a.m., on November 25th, 2012.
[2]Dale H. Schunk, Learning Theories; An Educational Perspective, (New York: Pearson Education inc,2012), sixth edition, P. 3
[3]Keith Johnson. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. (New York: Pearson Education. 2008). p. 80.
[4]Tom E Kakonis, David Allan Evans, From Language to Idea: An Integrated Rhetoric, (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Inc. New York: 1971), p.139
[5]Mario Klarer, An Intriduction to Literary Studies, (Routledge, New York: 2005) p. 1
[6]http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_literature#ixzz28aVW5Ggt.
[7]Ellie Chambers and Marshal Gregory, Teaching and Learning English Literature, (California: SAGE Publication Ltd, 2006), p. 4
[8]Yus Rusyana. Metode Pengajaran Sastra.(Bandung: Gunung Larang, 1982)
[9]Richard Beach, et al, Teaching Literature to Adolescents, (New York: Routledge, 2011), 2nd edition, p. 13-14
[10]http://www.ehow.com/how_2158235_study-analyze-literature.html, accesed at 6:45 PM on November 26th, 2012.
[11]John S. Lewis and Jean C. Sisk. Teaching English. (New York: American Book Company 1963), p. 197.
[12]Bruce Pattison. The teaching of Literature, English Language Teaching, 17:59-62. (January, 1963), p. 60.
[13]Dorothy Dakin. How to Teach High School English. (Boston D. C. Heath and Company. 1947), p. 225.
[14]Ibid. p. 226
[15]http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/method?q=METHOD
[16]http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/method?q=METHOD
[17] http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/method
thank you
ReplyDeleteThank you for this! As someone who will be teaching Language and Literature this really helped put certain things in perspective.
ReplyDeleteAnn