Filsafat dan Pendidikan

PENDAHULUAN


Pendidikan adalah upaya mengembangkan potensi-potensi manusiawi peserta didik baik potensi fisik potensi cipta, rasa, maupun karsanya, agar potensi itu menjadi nyata dan dapat berfungsi dalam perjalanan hidupnya. Dasar pendidikan adalah cita-cita kemanusiaan universal. Pendidikan bertujuan menyiapkan pribadi dalam keseimbangan, kesatuan, organis, harmonis, dan dinamis. Guna mencapai tujuan hidup kemanusiaan. Filsafat pendidikan adalah filsafat yang digunakan dalam studi mengenai masalah masalah pendidikan.


Bidang ilmu pendidikan dengan berbagai cabang-cabangnya merupakan landasan ilmiah bagi pelaksanaan pendidikan, yang terus berkembang secara dinamis. Sedangkan filsafat pendidikan sesuai dengan peranannya, merupakan landasan filosofis yang menjiwai seluruh kebijaksanaan dan pelaksanaan pendidikan. Kedua bidang diatas harus menjadi pengetahuan dasar (basic knowledge) bagi setiap pelaksana pendidikan, apakah ia guru ataukah sarjana pendidikan. Membekali mereka dengan pengetahuan dimaksud diatas berarti memberikan dasar yang kuat bagi sosialnya profesi mereka. Dengan demikian seorang guru dan sarjana pendidikan seyogyanya mengapproach masalah pendidikan dengan masalah dengan masalah approach yang komprehensif dan integral dan bukan dengan approach yang elementer, bahkan tidak dengan approach ilmiah semata-mata.







PEMBAHASAN


PENGERTIAN FILSAFAT


Kata filsafat berasal dari kata Philosophia yang berarti cinta pengetahuan. Menurut Hasan Shadily yang dikutip oleh Jalaluddin bahwa filsafat menurut asal katanya adalah cinta akan kebenaran. Dari pernyataan tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa filsafat adalah cinta kepada ilmu pengetahuan atau kebenaran.


Selanjutnya Imam Bernadib menjelaskan, filsafat sebagai pandangan yang menyeluruh dan sistematis. Dikatakan menyeluruh karena filsafat bukan hanya sekedar pengetahuan melainkan juga suatu pandangan yang dapat menembus sampai di balik pengetahuan itu sendiri.


Filsafat dibutuhkan manusia dalam upaya menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang timbul dalam berbagai masalah di kehidupan manusia termasuk bidang pendidikan. Jawaban itu yang merupakan hasil pemikiran sistematis, integral, menyeluruh dan mendasar.



PENGERTIAN PENDIDIKAN


Dalam arti sederhana pendidikan sering diartikan sebagai usaha manusia untuk membina kepribadiannya sesuai dengan nilai-nilai di dalam masyarakat dan kebudayan.  Pendidikan juga diartikan sebagai usaha yang dijalankan oleh seseorang atau kelompok orang lain agar menjadi dewasa atau mencapai tingkat hidup atau penghidupan yang lebih tinggi dalam arti mental.


Menurut UU No. 20 tahun 2003; pendidikan adalah usaha sadar dan terencana untuk mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran agar peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkan potensi dirinya untuk memiliki kekuatan spiritual keagamaan, pengendalian diri, kepribadian, kecerdasan, akhlak mulia serta keterampilan yang diperlukan dirinya, masyarakat, bangsa dan negara.  


PENGERTIAN FILSAFAT PENDIDIKAN


Menurut ahli, Al-Syaibani yang dikutip oleh Jalaluddin, filsafat pendidikan yaitu aktifitas pikiran yang teratur yang menjadikan filsafat tersebut sebagai jalan untuk mengatur, menyelaraskan dan memadukan proses pendidikan. Artinya, bahwa filsafat pendidikan dapat menjelaskan nilai-nilai yang diupayakan untuk mencapainya, maka filsafat pendidikan dan pengalaman kemanusiaan merupakan faktor yang integral atau satu-kesatuan.


HUBUNGAN FILSAFAT DENGAN FILSAFAT PENDIDIKAN


Hubungan antara filsafat dan filsafat pendidikan sangatlah penting sebab ia menjadi dasar, arah dan pedoman suatu sistem pendidikan. Menurut Jalaluddin & Idi, filsafat pendidikan merupakan aktivitas pemikiran teratur yang menjadikan filsafat sebagai medianya untuk menyusun proses pendidikan, menyelaraskan dan mengharmoniskan serta menerangkan nilai-nilai dan tujuan yang ingin di capai.


Adapun hubungan filsafat umum dan filsafat pendidikan terdapat batasan-batasan sebagai berikut:

1. Filsafat pendidikan merupakan pelaksana pandangan filsafat dan kaidah filsafat dalam bidang pengalaman kemanusiaan yang disebut pendidikan.

2. Kajian tentang filsafat pendidikan sangat penting karena merupakan upaya dalam pengembangan pandangan terhadap proses pendidikan dalam upaya memperbaikai keadaan pendidikan.

3. Filsafat pendidikan memiliki prinsip-prinsip, kepercayaan, konsep andaian yang kontinuansi satu sama lainnya.

            Dari uraian di atas, kita dapat menarik kesimpulan bahwa antara filsafat pendidikan dan pendidikan terdapat suatu hubung­an yang erat sekali dan tak terpisahkan. Filsafat pendidikan mempunyai peranan yang amat penting dalam sistem pendi­dikan karena filsafat merupakan pemberi arah dan pedoman dasar bagi usaha-usaha perbaikan, meningkatkan kemajuan dan landasan kokoh bagi tegaknya sistem pendidikan.

PENGERTIAN KONSEP


Dalam kamus Bahasa Indonesia, konsep diartikan dengan (1) rancangan atau buram surat tersebut. (2) Ide atau pengertian yang diabstrakkan dari peristiwa konkrit (3) gambaran mental dari objek, proses ataupun yang ada diluar bahasa yang digunakan untuk memahami hal- hal lain.


PENGERTIAN KONSEP PENDIDIKAN


Dapat disimpulkan bahwa konsep pendidikan adalah Ide atau pengertian yang diabstrakkan dan gambaran mental dari objek, proses ataupun yang ada diluar bahasa yang digunakan untuk memahami pendidikan. Singkatnya, konsep pendidikan adalah rancangan proses atau sistem pendidikan.


HUBUNGAN FILSAFAT DENGAN KONSEP PENDIDIKAN


Jalaluddin & Idi menyampaikan hubungan fungsional antara filsafat dan konsep pendidikan, sebagai berikut:

1. Filsafat merupakan suatu cara pendekatan yang dipakai untuk memecahkan problematika pendidikan dan menyususun konsep pendidikan.

2. Filsafat berfungsi memberi arah terhadap konsep pendidikan yang memiliki relevansi dengan kehidupan yang nyata.

3. Filsafat, dalam hal ini fisafat pendidikan, mempunyai fungsi untuk memberikan petunjuk dan arah dalam pengembangan konsep pendidikan menjadi ilmu pendidikan.


KONSEP-KONSEP PENDIDIKAN


Konsep Pendidikan Umum


Konsep Dasar Pendidikan

Ada beberapa konsep dasar tentang pendidikan yang akan dilaksanakan, yaitu :

Bahwa pendidikan berlangsung seumur hidup

Dalam dunia pendidikan kemudian tumbuh konsep pendidikan seumur hidup ( lifelong education ), yang berarti pendidikan berlangsung sampai mati, yaitu pendidikan berlangsung seumur hidup dalam setiap saat selama ada pengaruh lingkungan. Dalam hal ini berarti bahwa usaha pendidikan sudah dimulai sejak manusia itu lahir dari kandungan ibunya sampai ia tutup usia, sepanjang ia mampu menerima pengaruh dan dapat mengembangkan dirinya.

Bahwa tanggung jawab pendidikan merupakan tanggung jawab bersama antara keluarga, masyaraat, dan pemerintah.

Pendidikan merupakan suatu keharusan, karena engan pendidikan manusia akan memiliki kemampuan dan kepribadian yang berkembang.


Pendidikan Hanya Berlaku bagi Manusia

Pendidikan merupakan kegiatan mengolah hati anak didik, pengajaran merupakan kegiatan mengolah otak  anak didik, dan pelatihan merupakan kegiatan mengolah lidah dan tangan anak didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman, manusia yang cerdas dan manusia yang terampil. Hewan tidak dapat dididik dan tidak memungkinkan untuk dididik, sehingga tidak mungkin dilibatkan dalam proses pendidikan. Hanya manusialah yang dapat dididik dan mungkin untuk menerima pendidikan, karena manusia memang dilengkapi dengan akal budinya.


Manusia Perlu Dididik (Memperoleh Pendidikan)

Perlunya manusia memperoleh pendidikan dikarenakan :

1.      Manusia dilahirkan dalam keadaan tidak berdaya.

2.      Manusia lahir tidak langsung dewasa.

3.      Manusia pada hakekatnya adalah mekhluk sosial.

4.      Manusia pada hakekatnya dapat dididik.


Konsep Pendidikan dalam Islam

Makna pendidikan dari segala yang terlibat di dalamnya merupakan hal yang sangat penting dalam perumusan system pendidikan dan implementasinya. Sekiranya saya ditanya: “Apakah pendidikan itu?”. Dan saya mejawa: “Pendidikan adalah suatu proses penanaman sesuatu ke dalam diri manusia”. Dalam jawaban ini, “suatu proses penanaman” mengacu pada metode dan system untuk menanamkan apa yang disebut sebagai “pendidikan” secara bertahap. “Sesuatu” mengacu pada kandungan yang ditanamkan; dan “diri manusia” mengacu pada penerima proses dan kandungan itu.

Sekarang jawaban yang diberikan di atas telah meliputi tiga unsur dasar yang membentuk pendidikan: proses, kandungan dan penerima. Tetapi semuanya itu belum lagi suatu definisi, karena unsur-unsur tersebut masih begitu saja dibiarka tidak jelas. Lagipula cara merumuskan kalimat yang dimaksudkan untuk dikembangakan menjadi suatu definisi sebagaimana diatas, memberikan kesan bahwa yang ditonjolkan adalah prosesnya. Misalnya saya rumuskan kembali jawaban terhadap pertanyaan di atas seperti ini: “Pendidikan adalah sesuatu yang secara bertahap ditanamkan kedalam manusia.”

Di sini kita masih tetap meliput tiga unsur dasar yang melekat dalam pendidikan, tetapi urutan keterdahuluan unsur penting yang membentuk pendidikan kali ini adalah kandungan dan bukan proses. Marilah kita bahas rumusan yang belakangan ini dan kemudian menganalisis konsep-konsep bawaannya.

Yang pertama adalah Manusia. Definisi manusia telah secara umum diketahui, yakni bahwa ia adalah “binatang rasional”, Karen rasionalitas adalah penentu manusia maka sekurang- kurangnnya kita harus memiliki bebrapa gagasan tentang apa arti “rasional”, dan kita semua sepakat bahwa hal itu mengacu pada “nalar”. Meskipun  demikian, dalam sejarah intelektual Barat konsep rasio telah mengalami banyak kontroversi dan telah menjadi – paling tidak dalam pandangan seorang muslim – problematik, karena secara bertahap ia telah menjadi terpisahkan dari “intelek” atau intelectus dalam proses sekularisasi gagasan-gagasa yang timbul sepanjang sejarah pemikiran Barat sejak periode Yunani dan Romawi Kuno.

Pemikir-pemikir muslim tidak menganggap apa yang dipahami sebagai rasio sebagai sesuatu yang terpisahkan dari apa yang dipahamkan sebagai intellectus. Mereka menganggap ‘aql sebagai suatu kesatuan organic dari rasio maupun intellectus. Denga pemikiran seperti ini, seorang muslim mendefinisikan manusia sebagai al-Hayawanun-Nathiq yang dalam istilah ini nathiq ini berarti “rasional”. Manusia memiliki suatu fakultas batin yang merumuskan makna-makna (yaitu dzu-nuthq).

Dan perumusan makna-makan yang melibatkan penilaian, pembedaan dan penjelasan inilah yang membentuk rasionalitas.

Istilrah-istilah nathiq dan nuthq berasal dari sebuah akar kata yang mempunyai makna dasar “pembicaraan”. Dalam arti pembicaraan manusia. Sehingga keduanya itu berarti suatu kekuatan dan kapasitas tertentu di dalam diri manusia untuk menyampaikan kata-kata dalam sebuah pola yang bermakna. Karena itu dia adalah suatu “binatang” berbahasa”, dan penyampaian symbol-simbol lingusitik ke dalam suatu pola yang bermakna tidak lain adalah eksresi lahiriah yang bisa dilihat dan didengar dari hakikat yang lebih dalam, yang tidak terlihat dan yang kita sebut sebagai ‘aql.

Istilah ‘aql sendiri pada dasarnya berarti sejenis “ikatan” atau “symbol”, sehingga dalam hal ini ‘aql berarti suatu sifat-dalam yang mengikat dan menyimpulkan objek-objek ilmu dengan menggunakan sarana kata-kata. ‘Aql adalah padanan kata qalb sebagaimana juga qalb, yang merupakan suatu suatu alat penerapan pengertian ruhaniah yang disebut hati, adalah padanan kata ‘aql. Sifat yang sebenarnya dari ‘aql adalah bahwa ia adalah suatu substansi ruhaniah yang dengannya diri-rasional (an-Nafsun-Nathiqah) dapat memahami dan membedakan kebenaran dari kepalsuan.

Dari acuan di atas, dan banyak lainnya yang tidak kita sebutkan di sini, jelas bahwa hakikat yang mendasari pendefinisian manusia adalah substansi ruhaniah ini, yang oleh setiap orang disiyaratkan ketika ia berkata “aku”. Oleh karena itu, jika kita berbicara tentang pendidikan, maka hal itu mesti dihubungkan dengan hakikat manusia ini dan tidak hanya pada jasad dan aspek kebinatangannya saja. Dalam mendefinisikan manusia sebagai suatu hewan rasional – bila yang kita maksud “rasional” adalah kapasitas untuk bisa memahami pembiacaraan dan kekuatan yang bertanggung jawab atas perumusan makna yang melibatkan penilaian, pembedaan, pencirian dan penjelasan serta yang berhubungan dengan penyampaian kata-kata atau ungkapan-ungkapan (ekspresi) dalam suatu pola yang bermakna maka makna dari “makna” dalam konteks ini didasarkan pada konsep makna/ma’na, yaitu pengnalan tempat-tempat segala sesuatu di dalam suatu system.

Unsur penting kedua yang melekat di dalam pendidikan adalah kandungannya, yang di sini disebut sebagai “sesuatu”. Hal ini dilakukan secara sengaja, karena meskipun kita telah tahu bahwa hal itu harus mengacu kepada ilmu, kita masih harus menetapkan apa ynag kita maksud dengannya. Pengajaran dan proses mempelajari keterampilan saja -  betapapun ilmiahnya dan bagimanapun yang diajarkan dan dipelajari tercakupkan dalam konsep umum tentang “ilmu” – tidak harus berarti pendidikan. Pengajaran dan proses belajar sains-sains kemanusiaan, alam dan terapan saja tidak merupakan bagian dari pendidikan dalam arti yang sedang kita jelaskan sekarang ini.

Sesuatu yang kiat singgung disini adalah ilmu itu sendiri; memang, hal itu adalah ilmu tentang tujuan pencariannya. Sampai di sini kita dipaksa untuk bertanya: kemudian, apakah yang disebut ilmu? Atau terdiri dari apa sajakah ilmu itu?

Ada banyak definisi yang menraikan sifat ilmu, tetapi yang relevan di sini adalah definisi epistemologis, mengingat pentingnya memahami segala sesuatu yang dilibatkan dan disiratkan dalam konteks epistemologis Islam.

Orang-orang muslim sepakat bahwa semua ilmu datang dari Allah. Dan kita juga tahu bahwa cara kedatangannya, dan fakultas serta indera yang menerima dan menafsirkannya tidaklah sama. Oleh karena semua pengetahuan datang dari Allah dan di tafsirkan oleh jiwa lewat fakultas-fakultas spiritual dan fisikalnya, maka definisi yang paling cock dengan mengacu kepada Allah sebagai asalnya adalah bahwa ilmu pengetahuan ialah kedatangan (hushul) makan suatu objek pegetahuan di dalam jiwa.

Jadi, sekarang kita akan menyempurnakan definisi kita tentang kandungan pendidikan sebagai: pengenalan dan pengakuan tentang tempat-tempat yang benar dari segala sesuatu di dalam tatanan penciptaan sehingga membimbing ke arah pengenalan dan pengakuan aka tempat Tuhan yang tepat di dalam tatanan wujud dan keperiadaan.

Masih ada satu konsep kunci lagi yang pada hakikatnya merupakan inti pendidikan dan proses pendidikan, karena konsep-konsep kunci lain yang kita sebutkan di atas semuanya memusatkan makna-maknanya. Konsep kunci utama ini terkandung dalam istilah adab

Adab ialah disiplin tubuh, jiwa dan ruh; disiplin; yang menegaskan pengenalan dan pengakuan tempat yang yang tepat dalam hubungannya dengan kemampuan dan potensi jasmaniah, intelektual dan ruhaniah; pengenalan dan pengkuan akan kenyataan bahwa ilmu dan wujud di tata secara hirarkis sesuai dengan berbagai tingkat (maratib) dan derajatnya (darajat).


Konsep Pendidikan Karakter

Menurut Lickona, pendidikan karakter berkaitan dengan konsep moral (moral knonwing), sikap moral (moral felling), dan perilaku moral (moral behavior). Berdasarkan ketiga komponen ini dapat dinyatakanbahwa karakter yang baikdidukung oleh pengetahuan tentang kebaikan, keinginan untuk berbuat baik, dan melakukan perbuatan kebaikan. Bagan dibawah ini merupakan bagan kterkaitan ketiga kerangka pikir ini.




Konsep pendidikan karakter mencakup 18 butir nilai-nilai pendidikan karakter yaitu: Religius, Jujur, Toleransi, Disiplin, Kerja Keras, Kreatif, Mandiri, Demokratis, Rasa Ingin Tahu, Semangat Kebangsaan, Cinta tanah air, Menghargai prestasi, Bersahabat/komunikatif,Cinta Damai, Gemar membaca, Peduli lingkungan, Peduli social, Tanggung jawab.


Konsep  Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia


Menurut UU Nomor 2 Tahun 1989

Pendidikan adalah usaha sadar untuk menyiapkan peserta didik melalui kegiatan bimbingan, pengajaran, dan atau latihan bagi peranannya di masa yang akan datang.


Menurut UU No. 20 tahun 2003

Pendidikan adalah usaha sadar dan terencana untuk mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran agar peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkan potensi dirinya untuk memiliki kekuatan spiritual keagamaaan, pengendalian diri, kepribadian, kecerdasan, akhlak mulia, serta ketrampilan yang diperlukan dirinya, masyarakat, bangsa, dan Negara.


Pendidikan nasional Indonesia bertujuan:"Mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa dan mengembangkan manusia Indonesia seutuhnya, yaitu manusia yang beriman dan bertakwa terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan berbudi pekerti luhur, memiliki pengetahuan dan ketrampilan, kesehatan jasmani dan rohani, kepribadian yang mantab dan mandiri serta rasa tanggung jawab kemasyarakatan dan kebangsaan." UU Nomor 2 tahun 1989


FAKTOR-FAKTOR PENDIDIKAN


Ilmu pendidikan mengemukakan beberapa macam factor yang dapat mempengaruhi kelancaran dan keberhasilan pelaksanaan pendidikan. Para ahli pendidikan membagi factor-faktor pendidikan tersebut menjadi lima factor; yaitu:


1). Faktor tujuan

Tujuan pendidikan merupakan factor utama yang harus diperhatikan, disadari, dan dijadikan sasaran oleh setiap pendidik yang melaksanakan kegiatan pendidikan.

Tugas pendidikan adalah mempengaruhi pembentukan pribadi peserta didik, maka berarti target sasaran ynag akan dicapai dalam setiap kegiatan pendidikan adalah bentuk manusia yang diharapkan terjadi pada diri peserta didik dalam rangka pembentuka pribadinya.

Dengan demikian tujuan pendidikan itu tidak lain adalah target sasaran yang akan dicapai dalam setiap kegiatan pendidikan atau rumusan bentuk manusia yang akan dicapai oleh kegiatan/usaha pendidikan yang dilakukan oleh seorang pendidik.

Lengveld telah mengemukakan beberapa macam tujuan pendidikan yang para pendidik perlu atau harus ketauhi. Yaitu:

Tujuan Umum

Tujuan Khusus

Tujuan Insidental/Seketika

Tujuan Sementara

Tujuan Tidak Lengkap

Tujuan Perantara/Intermedier (Tim Dosen IKIP Malang, 1987: 32-33; Fuad Ihsan, 1997: 7-8)


2). Faktor anak didik

Sebutan “anak didik” dalam ilmu pendidikan tidak terlepas kaitannya dengan sifat ketergantungan seorang anak terhadap pendidik tertentu. Seorang anak disebut anak didik apabila ia menjadi tanggung jawab pendidik tertentu (Barnadib, 1989:77).

Menurut Lengeveld, anak didik adalah anak atau orang yang belum dewasa atau belum memperoleh kedewasaan atau seseorang yang masih menjadi tanggung jawab seorang pendidik tertentu; anak didik tersebut adalah anak yang memiliki sifat ketergantungan kepada pendidiknya itu, karena ia secara alami tidak berdaya ia sangat memerlukan bantuan pendidiknya untuk dapat menyelenggarakan dan melanjutkan hidupnya baik secara jasmaniah maupun rohaniah (Barnadib, 1989:77; Amir Dien,1973:134-135).

Untuk lebih jelas lagi kami akan menuturkan sifat khas anak didik sebagai berikut:

anak didik adalah seorang yang belum dewasa atau memperoleh kedewasaan; ia masih menjadi tanggung jawab seorang pendidik tertentu.

Anak didik adalah anak yang sedang berkembang; sejak lahir sampai meninggal anak mengalami perkembangan.  Karena itu pendidik harus membantu membimbing perkembangan anak baik perkembangan jiwanya, pengetahuannya, dan penguasaan diri terhadap lingkungan sosialnya.

Dasar hakiki anak didik adalah dapat dididik dan harus dididik. Anak hakikatnya adalah “animal educandum” yaitu makhluk yang dapat dididik, karena anak mempunyai bakat dan disposisi-disposisi yang memungkinkan pendidikan.


3). Faktor pendidik

Menurut Lengveld, “pendidik” adalah orang yang bertanggung jawab terhadap pendidikan atau kedewasaan seorang anak. Jadi sebenarnya seseorang disebut pendidik itu karena adanya peranan dan tanggung jawabnya dalam mendidik seorang anak.

Orang yang termasuk factor pendidik itu adalah: (1) Orang Tua; (2) Orang Dewasa lain yang bertanggung jawab terhadap kedewasaan seorang anak, misalnya guru dan wakil-wakil dari orang tua ynag diserahi mengasuh/mendidik anak (Barnadib, 1989:61).

Dalam ilmu pendidikan, kedudukan orang tua itu adalah sebagai pendidik kodrat/primair, karena asecara kodrat memang anak berasal dari orang tua, sehingga orang tualah yang mempunyai tanggung jawab primair (penanggung jawab utama) dalam mendidik anak. Di samping itu orang tua juga berfungsi sebagai pendidik pertama dan utama; karena dari orang tualah anak pertama kali memperoleh dasar-dasar pendidikan yang sangat penting artinya bagi perkembangan pribadi atau kehidupannya.

Pendidik-pendidik lainnya seperti guru misalnya termasuk pendidik tingkat kedua/ sekunder. Dalam hal ini guru disebut pendidik karena jabatan, yang tugas dan tanggung jawabnya tidak berbeda dengan orang tua dalam mendidik atau dalam mengarahkan kedewasaan si anak (Amir Dalen, 1973:100; Fuad Ihsan, 1997:8).

Semua pendidik baik yang primer atau sekunder tugasnya sama yaitu mendiddik. Mendidik adalah tugas yang luhur. Oleh karena itu seseorang ynag bertugas sebagai pendidik haruslah mempunyai sifat-sifat social yang besar, harus mempunyai kesenangan bekerja/bergaul dengan orang lain/anak serta mempunyai sifat kasih saying kepada orang lain/anak.

Dengan demikian sikap pendidik harus senang dan cinta kasih saying kepada anak didik dan dengan penuh rasa tanggung jawab, adil dan jujur pendidik berusaha mewujudkan kesejahteraan bagi anak didiknya.


4). Faktor alat

Alat dan sarana pendidikan merupakan salah satu faktor pendidikan yang sengaja diadakan dan digunakan untuk pencapaian tujuan pendidikan.

Dalam ilmu Pendidikan alat dan sarana pendidikanini termasuk factor alat Menurut Barnadib (1989:95) yang dimaksud factor alat ialah segala sesuatu yang secara langsung membantu terlaksanannya pendidikan.

Alat pendidikan ini didefinisikan oleh Langveld, tujuan suatu tindakan atau perbuatan atau situasi yang sengaja diadakan untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan. Dengan demikian alat pendidikan sebagai alat langsung ynag digunakan oleh pendidik itu dapat berupa tindakan atau perbuatan atau situasi yang sengaja diadakan dan digunakan oleh pendidik untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan (Wens Tanlain, dkk, 1989: 52; Amir Daien, 1973: 137 – 139).


5). Faktor milieu/lingkungan (Barnadib, 1989:35)

Faktor milieu atau alam sekitar atau lingkungan sekitar merupakan salah satu faktor yang penting peranannya dalam pendidikan, karena dapat mempengaruhi perkembangan anak (Wens Tanlain, dkk, 1989:40)

    Dalam pernyataan ini, kebanyakan ahli didik tidak sependapat, lkarena menurut pendapatnya pengaruh lingkungan berbeda dengan pengaruh pendidik terhadap anak didik; yaitu pengaruh pendidik sifatnya bertanggung jawab, sedangkan pengaruh lingkungan tidak bertanggung jawab. Pengaruh lingkungan sekitar dapat bersifat positif dan dapat pula negative. Karena itu sangat beruntunglah seorang anak yang tinggal atau hidup di lingkungan alam sekitar yang memberikan/menyediakan pengaruh yang positif. Mengingat factor lingkungan yang demikian pengaruhnya terhadap anak didik, maka sudah menjaid tugas kewajiban para pendidik/orang tua untuk mengantisipasi dan menghindarkan pengaruh-pengaruh negative dari lingkungan serta berupaya menyediakan pengaruh lingkungan ynag positif yang dapat menunjang perkembangan kepribadian si anak (Barnadib, 1989:117).

Adapun factor lingkungan, ynag dimaksud di sini adalah segala sesuatu yang ada di sekitar/di sekeliling anak. Factor lingkungan ini ada ynag membagi menurut wujudnya dan ada pula yang membaginya dan menggolongkannya ke dalam lingkungan pendidikan.

    Menurut wujudnya milieu/lingkungan ini dibagi menjadi empat bagian:

Lingkungan berwujud manusia seperti orang tua/keluarga, teman-teman bermain, teman sekolah dan kenalan-kenalan lain.

Lingkungan kesenian berupa macam-macam pertunjukan seperti gambar hidup, wayang ketoprak, sandiwara, dan lain-lain pertunjukan seperti yang ditayangkan di TV.

Lingkungan berwujud kesusastraan, seperti bermacam-macam tulisan, atau bacaan yang ada di Koran, majalah dan buku-buku bacaan lainnya.

Lingkungan berwujud tempat yaitu tempat seperti tempat tinggal dimana anak dibesarkan, iklim dan tempat/daerah dimana anak tinggal, dan lain-lain (Barnadib, 1989:118-119).

Ada pula sementara pendidik yang membagi milieu/lingkungan alam sekitar menjadi empat bagian, yaitu:

Lingkungan fisik/tempat seperti keadaan iklim, keadaan tanah, keadaan alam.

Lingkungan budaya yaitu warisan budaya tertentu seperti bahasa, seni, ekonomi, ilmu pengetahuan, pandangan hidup, keagamaan.

Lingkungan social/masyarakat (kelompok hidup bersama) seperti keluarga, kelompok bermain, desa, perkumpulan.

Lingkungan pendidikan, yaitu lingkungan sekitar yang sengaja digunakan sebagai alat dalam proses pendidikan seperti pakaian, keadaan rumah, alat permainan, buku-buku, alat peraga, dan lain sebagainya (Wens Tanlain, dkk, 1989:39-40).

Ki Hajar Dewantara, membagi factor lingkungan ini menjadi tiga bagianyang terkenal dengan istilah “Tri Pusat Pendidikan”, yaitu tiga pusat lingkungan pendidikan yaitu:

Lingkungan Keluarga

Lingkungan Sekolah

Lingkungan Masyarakat/Organisasi Pemuda.






PENUTUP




Kesimpulan



filsafat pendidikan ialah aktifitas pikiran yang teratur yang menjadi filsafat tersebut sebagai jalan untuk mengatur, menyelaraskan dan memadukan proses pendidikan . artinya, bahwa filsafat pendidikan dapat menjelaskan nilai-nilai dan maklumat-maklumat yang diupayakan untuk mencapainya, maka filsafat pendidikan dan pengalaman kemanusiaan merupakan factor yang integral atau satu kesatuan.


Dengan demikian, filsafat pendidikan itu adalah filsafat yang memikirkan tentang masalah kependidikan. Oleh karena ada kaitan dengan pendidikan, filsafat diartikan sebagai teori pendidikan dengan segala tingkat. Peranan filsafat pendidikan merupakan sumber pendorong adanya pendidikan. Dalam bentunya yang terperinci kemudian filsafat pendidikan menjadi jiwa dan pedoman asasi pendidikan.


Sedangkan konsep pendidikan adalah Ide atau pengertian yang diabstrakkan dan gambaran mental dari objek, proses ataupun yang ada diluar bahasa yang digunakan untuk memahami pendidikan. Singkatnya, konsep pendidikan adalah rancangan proses atau sistem pendidikan.


Dengan demikian menurut, Jalaluddin & Idi hubungan, fungsional antara filsafat dengan konsep pendidikan adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Filsafat merupakan suatu cara pendekatan yang dipakai untuk memecahkan problematika pendidikan dan menyususun konsep pendidikan.

2. Filsafat berfungsi memberi arah terhadap konsep pendidikan yang memiliki relevansi dengan kehidupan yang nyata.

3. Filsafat, dalam hal ini fisafat pendidikan, mempunyai fungsi untuk memberikan petunjuk dan arah dalam pengembangan konsep pendidikan menjadi ilmu pendidikan.




















DAFTAR PUSTAKA



Jalaluddin, H dan Idi, Abdullah. 1997. Filsafat Pendidikan. Jakarta: Gaya Media Pratama.

Sudirman, N., dkk. 1992. Ilmu Pendidikan. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya.

Tirtaraharja, Umar dan La Sula. 2000. Pengantar Pendidikan. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta.

http://najibjagadilmu.blogspot.com/2012/03/konsepsi-pendidikan.html

http://makalahkumakalahmu.net/2008/10/26/dasar-pendidikan-dalam-konsep-dan-makna-belajar/

Munib, Ahmad dkk. 2006. Pengantar Ilmu Pendidikan. Semarang : UNNES Press.

Syed Muhammad Al-Naquib Al-Attas. 1984   Konsep Pendidikan dalam Islam. Bandung: Mizan.

Drs. H.M Alisuf Sabri. 2005. Pengantar Ilmu Pendidikan. Ciputat, Jakarta Selatan: UIN Jakarta Press.

Some Problems of Krashen's Learning Theory (Language Learning and Acquisition)

More recent investigations of how people become language users have centered on the distinction between acquisition and learning. In particular Stephen Krashen characterized the former as a subconscious process which results in the knowledge of a language whereas the latter results only in ‘knowing about’ the language. Acquired language is somehow ‘better’ than learnt language because someone would have to concentrate to produce the latter, thus interrupting the flow of language production. The suggestion Krashen made is that second (or foreign) language learning needs to be more like children’s acquisition of their native language. Krashen assumed that children hear and experience a considerable amount of the language in situations where they are involved in communicating with an adult. Their gradual ability to use language is the result of many subconscious processes. They have not consciously set out to learn a language; it happens as a result of the input they receive and the experiences which accompany this input. However, second (or foreign) language learning is not the same case with children acquiring their first language. There are some problems that must take into consider applying this theory on second (or foreign) language learning.

            First, the division between acquisition and learning doesn’t make sense. In the first place it will be almost impossible to say whether someone has learnt or acquired a certain piece of language. If two people are exposed to the same roughly-tuned input how will we know whether one makes conscious attempts to learn it or not? It is almost impossible, in other words, to test this hypothesis since to do so we would have to be able to see into the minds of all the people who had been exposed to the same input and record their thought processes. Neither does it make sense that learnt language can’t become part of the acquired language store, as Krashen seems to suggest. It is clear that language that has been learnt does ‘sink in’ at some stages; maybe students will not be able to produce it immediately in spontaneous conversation, but it will eventually come out, given time. Learnt language which is practiced does seem to become part of the acquired store. Even thought it may be the case that only certain grammatical features are susceptible to such treatment. It has been suggested that freer practice activities may act as a switch which allows consciously learnt language to transfer to the acquired store. However, in short, this hypothesis seems artificial.

            Another problem is that acquisition takes a long time. In fact, time is a crucial issue. As well known, language can’t be mastered by learning it just once, rather we must learn it gradually. With a great deal of repeated exposures to the language, students can acquire the language faster and remember it longer. However, the vast majority of students in the world study language for about two and a half hours a week, for about thirty week a year, which is not much time when compared to the time taken by children to acquire their first language. As a result, students need more time to acquire second (or foreign) language ability as much as the time that children have when acquiring their first language.

            Another problem we must also look at is the condition under which language learning takes place. For instance, with small classes and comfortable rooms it may be possible to train students to take charge of their own learning over a period of week in a well-equipped school. However, most teachers handle large classes in uncomfortable surroundings. Therefore, transcribing the students’ tape recorded English after a Community Language Learning, for instance, is not such a good idea with a class of thirty students. It is assumed that conditions influence the activities that will be used on language learning as well as the effectiveness of students acquiring language.

            The last problem is resources. We can assume that children can acquire their first language because they have a great deal of chances to come into contact with their first language as well as regular access to their first language-speaking people and other resources. These are not the same when compared to many students of second (or foreign) language learning who have fewer chance to take place in real communicative activities with the language as well as to get language resources easily. Moreover, some resources are commercial and cost expensive. In short, many second (or foreign) language learnings have limited access to language resources.

            In summary, there are some problems with Krashen’s theory of learning. In first place his hypothesis seems artificial. The division he made between acquisition and learning doesn’t make sense. Moreover, his suggestion that second (or foreign) language learning needs to be more like Children’s acquisition of their native language makes considerable demands to some factors, such as time, condition and resource. Clearly, learning second (or foreign) language is not the same case with children acquiring their first language.

Curriculum Organization

Curriculum organization refers to the structure of curriculum. So, analyzing a curriculum organization is to analyze whether the structure of curriculum is good or not. It seeks the answer of some questions like ‘why does particular subject exist in that particular occasion?’, ‘is it okay to put this subject after, before, or at the same time with another?’ etc.

Commonly, analyzing curriculum organization can be through its level and dimension. For the former, we analyze curriculum organization based on its level relations either in macro level or micro level. In the macro level, we analyze the relations between educational levels (class 7, 8, and 9 of senior high school) or educational programs (vocational and general programs). In the micro level, we analyze the relations of its most specific level such as the relations between particular concepts, facts or skills within lessons. For the later, we analyze curriculum organization based on its dimension, whether it is good if the curriculum is arranged vertically or horizontally. Vertical dimension seeks the correlation or integration of contents taught in curriculum whereas horizontal dimension seeks the sequencing of contents taught in curriculum.

Further, analyzing curriculum organization can be through the structure of its content, whether it is good to organize the content in discrete, linear, hierarchical, or spiral. Discrete structure means that the content is organized separately; one section is not related with another. Linear structure means that the content is organized in sequence; one subject is prerequisite for another. Hierarchical means that to take a subject needs other subjects which are required; students need to take sub-subject before taking the main subject. Spiral structure means that the content is periodically re-taught based on circle order.

Next, analyzing curriculum organization can be through the structure of its media. Media means a tool which can facilitate to conduct a curriculum. The tool is called method or technique. We analyze whether the technique used to conduct a curriculum is good and appropriate or not, is it better to use parallel, convergent, divergent or mixed technique?. Parallel means that each subject will be taught by using its own method (each method for each subject). Convergent means that one subject will be taught by using several techniques (several methods for one subject). Divergent means that a set of learning out comes will be achieved by using particular method (certain method for a set of learning out comes). Mixed means that a subject can be taught by using combined more than one method.

Next, curriculum organization can be analyzed through its typical respond. For example, we can analyze typical curriculum organization in macro level whether it’s a respond to the changing purpose of schools and societal institutions; or the changes of cultural construction.

The last, curriculum organization can be analyzed by seeing its principles related to four common places. The first is subject matter. Organizing curriculum based on what the subject matter seems to be organized can be related to world as it exist-empirical; concepts as what we think and talk about the world-conceptual; and inquiry which is similar to conceptual principle but more describes about the process deriving the concept rather than the way the concept as product is organized. The second is learners and learning. It means that organizing a curriculum may consider the characteristics of learners including their interest, problems, needs, abilities, previous experiences, preconceptions, and developmental level; as well as, the way they learn. The third is teachers and teaching. It means that organizing a curriculum may consider the characteristics of teachers including their interest, perspective of learning and subject matter, teaching style, etc. as well as, the focus of curriculum significance and the assignments teachers give. The fourth is milieu. It means that organizing a curriculum may be influenced by environment such as social perspective, economic perspectives, political perspectives and also organizational perspectives.

In conclusion, analyzing a curriculum is like evaluating the structure of curriculum. It seeks the answer of some questions like, “is each aspect connected effectively or not?”. Curriculum organization can be analyzed by evaluating its level, dimension, content, media, typical respond, and principle.

A Language Laboratory Lesson by Henri Christian Raffalli

Article             : A Language laboratory Lesson

Writer              : Henri Christian Raffalli

Journal             : Journal of Educational Sociology

Date Published: 29/12/2008                                       

The author in this article mainly tells about the functions of language laboratory. In his article, he states that language laboratory has four functions namely APP (audio-passive practice), AAP (audio-active practice), ACP (audio-creative practice) and AEP (audio-evaluatory practice). He refers APP as the application of the “learning by hearing” theory-that is, the students imitate what they hear; AAP as the application of the “learning by doing” theory-that is, the students do something with what they have heard; ACP as an extension of APP and AAP functions-that is, the students create new sentences and concepts based on what has been learnt; and AEP as a tool of the teachers to help them evaluate their students’ progress. He then explains the uses of these functions as ways to help students develop their language skills such as aural understanding, dictation, pronunciation, intonation, and so on that may vary according what exercise the teachers give moreover they help teachers correct, comment, encourage and evaluate their students’ progress. He concluded that language laboratory is an invaluable tool in language teaching for teacher’s mechanical aid.

In this article, the author just wrote down his thought directly, without commenting on or agreeing with other concepts, about the functions of language laboratory.

I agree with his concept about the four function of language laboratory because it is a fact that when students are in language laboratory, they will commonly be asked to listen an audio (APP), do some exercise based on what they have heard (AAP), make a new sentence or concept based on the concept they have leant then teacher will evaluate their progress.

I have experienced all the functions of language laboratory. When I was in senior high school, I found that learning English in laboratory was very useful, especially for listening skill. I could get knowledge on how to pronounce words, using intonation in certain situation, and so on  based on what I have heard (APP).  After that I was asked to do some exercise in order to check whether I understood the material or not (AAP, ACP and AEP).

Critical Critique of Classroom and Instructional Activities

Article   : Critical Critique of Classroom and Instructional Activities

Date Published: 2003

This article talks over about Kraus’ critical analysis of a textbook, True Colors: An EFL Course for Real Communication by Maurer and Schaenberg, which comes out of a functional-notional approach. He argues that this textbook can provide the basis relevant communicative models. In his view, practicing language functions does not equate to communication, instead learners merely pronounce what is required by the given exercise. It is in contrast to the aim of CLT that is to get learners to express themselves and to own language. Moreover, functional phrases are commonly extracted from situation that doesn’t indicate the place and logic functions in a general communicative scheme. It is rather meaning-making than based on pure contextual and meaningful situation. In addition, the notional syllabus that takes place, commonly deals with the elicitation of structure, not the lives of people. In sum, language learning activities based on functional-notional approach is merely an effort to contextualize grammatical rather than communicative practices.

On giving his opinion that functional-notional textbook falls to reach the purpose for communicative practice, the author banks on Kraus’ critical analysis. He talks over about Kraus’ view, and asserts his agreement on it. In other word, he gives his opinion indirectly.

I do agree with his opinion because it is a fact that some textbooks coming out of a functional-notional approach are only as an effort to contextualize grammatical rather than communicative practices. Therefore, sometimes the topics are not related by context instead of by linguistic function.

I’ve experienced using English textbook based on functional-notional approach and it is true that the textbook falls to foster communicative practice instead it just emphasize grammatical features on the activities. However, I still feel the book is very useful because I think grammar will lead us to communicate correctly and effectively.

Grammar-Beware by Vincenzo Cioffari

Article                         : Grammar-Beware

Writer                          : Vincenzo Cioffari

Journal                         : The Modern Language Journal

Date Published            : 20/12/2008

The author mainly talks over about the function of grammar in language teaching. He states that on teaching language, a teacher needs grammar. Actually, grammar serves two purposes; namely to analyze a language and to set a standard of the language. Then, the task of language teachers is to teach the standard of the language that has been analyzed and recorded by trained linguist to permit the students to acquire the language and use it as his own. Therefore, students need to be exposed to the necessary tools helping acquire the language namely; speech habits, vocabulary and construction that wholly regulated in grammar. At first, students must be exposed to the characteristics of sounds of the new language that is regulated by phonology (grammar of sound). However, sounds only will have meaning if they are combined into word that is regulated by morphology (grammar of word formation). Then for the purpose of communication, students need to express their feelings through utterance that is regulated by syntax and semantics (grammar of sentence and meaning). However, if grammar isn’t used in teaching language, there will be no standard form of the language. Consequently, school will result new users that will produce utterances of the foreign languages being learnt difficult to be understood. In his conclusion, the function of grammar in language teaching is to make students aware of the standard form of the language.

The author put his view about the function of grammar in language teaching without agreeing or disagreeing with other views about it; he didn’t insert additional views from others.

I certainly agree with him because in teaching a language we need a guide that serves as the basis elements to teach. Therefore, the existence of grammar will help us determine the standard form of the language to teach. Consequently, it will avoid students making incorrect utterance of the language and be more aware.

I have felt the effect of learning grammar. I’m more aware about the incorrect utterances that are sometimes produced by me and my friends. Indeed, I think if the grammar of the foreign language I’m learning doesn’t exist, I will certainly make my new own language rather learn the foreign language.

Vocabulary Development: Teaching vs. Testing by Allen Pace Nilsen and Don L. F. Nilsen

Article                         : Vocabulary Development: Teaching vs. Testing

Writer                          : Allen Pace Nilsen and Don L. F. Nilsen

Journal                         : The English Journal

Date Published            : 08/11/2008

This article talks over about the differences between good teaching vocabulary and teaching vocabulary for testing. On testing vocabulary, it focuses on obscure words tested in random or alphabetical order. Consequently, teachers whose aim to teach vocabulary for testing will transfer to their classroom the same techniques that they see test makers using. They will ask students to sit alone and copy out a single definition from a dictionary. However, this technique isn’t a very effective way to learn new words. Instead it can actually damage students learning because they will have few semantic, phonological or orthographical relationships. In contrast, on a good teaching vocabulary, teachers will help students develop inquiring minds and the skills needed to unravel new words by teaching words that fit into gestalts. This technique considers that human mind has to make connections in order to remember things and every language is always changing. Therefore, it will be better if teachers teach students new words from old words. Students then will make connections between them. They will know both their similarities and differences and begin to think about the sources of metaphors. In other words, they will have many semantic, phonological, or orthographical relationships. This article concludes by recommending teachers teach vocabulary by this technique.

The author in this article supports Gestal theory of learning and constructivist perspective that learning is relating something with another.

I agree with some of this concept. I agree that learning vocabulary by memorizing and looking the meaning of individual words isn’t effective. However, I don’t agree with learning vocabulary from old one to the new one. I think it is more like teaching students to be linguists who analyze words. It’ll be useful just for university students but not for another, it’ll indeed add students work on learning vocabulary. I think it will be better if the aims of teaching vocabulary are just to know the meaning and to use it in appropriate context. So, I prefer to learn language in meaningful context.

I often learn vocabulary by looking up its meaning in a dictionary. It is true that this technique isn’t effective. I need long time to know the meaning of the word unconsciously. Moreover, I must frequently meet the word before it stays on my mind.

Vocabulary Difficulty and Textbook Selection by Carl L. Johnson

Article                         : Vocabulary Difficulty and Textbook Selection

Writer                          : Carl L. Johnson

Journal                         : The Modern Language Journal

Date Published            : 20/05/2008   

The author attempts to supply information useful in selecting French reading texts. He grades reading texts by determining the relative degree of difficulty of their vocabularies. He offers to use standardized checking lists in order to avoid haphazard and unscientific methods of selection. First, he calculates running word count and the number of sources to which a word is common. He has examined and combined the vocabulary indices of twenty high school reading texts selected with regard to the following factors: (1) author, (2) time written, (3) setting, (4) type, i.e. drama, novel, poetry, etc., (5) popularity4 in schools at present. After that, he makes the list of the common words based on the calculation. However, in this case, he prefers to use the list of 3600 common word of Dr. Henmon. Then, someone who wants to select reading texts can use this list to grading the difficulty of the vocabulary using in the text. First, the person should calculate how many words using in the selecting text and each word frequency. After that, the person should match each word frequency in the selecting text with the author list of 3600 common words. If all words in the selecting text score less than 0.6, we give it a checklist as less frequent. It means that the text is difficult. He concludes this article by recommending using this technique because it is objective, easily and quickly applied; measures relative difficulty; is applicable to all types of French reading texts; and is valid in that it measures what it attempts to measure.

            The article emerged as a respond to a recent issue of the MODERN LANGUAGE JOURNAL; in which Dr. A. Green expresses the need of standardized checking lists. The role of the author in this article is to introduce his standardized checking list which uses the list of common words of Dr. Hommon, A French Word Book.

            I agree with this concept that to select reading text must consider the grade of the text. A text can be graded by the difficulty of vocabularies used in the text. I think it is true because sometimes I feel reading certain book is difficult because the book uses unfamiliar vocabularies. So, I think the grade of the book isn’t appropriate to my capacities.

            I have read a topic related to selecting vocabularies. Selecting vocabulary can be from concrete to abstract; simple to complex; or frequent to less frequent. Selecting vocabulary based on its frequency is like what this article explains. We must count some textbook words and calculate what words are more frequent, called common words. Commonly, experts use computers to calculate them effectively.

Direct Approaches in L2 Instruction: A Turning Point in Communicative Language Teaching?

Direct Approaches in L2 Instruction: A Turning Point in

Communicative Language Teaching?

Writer                          : Marianne Celce-Murcia; Zoltán Dörnyei; Sarah Thurrell

Journal                         : TESOL Quarterly

Date Published            : 05/03/2007             

This article provides two main issues of CLT. The first is the linguistic content base of CLT.  The primary focus in CLT was the elaboration and implementation of notional-functional syllabus in which language functions were introduced in a range of context, with some coverage of degrees of formality and politeness as well as of cross-cultural issues. However the lack of its firm linguistic guidelines led to a diversity of communicative approach then caused problem on testing the learning outcomes. Fortunately, researches could give a clear specification for communicative competences. It is oriented on linguistic competences which are then made as content base of CLT. The second issue is the pedagogical treatment of linguistic forms in CLT. In practice, linguistic content base of CLT merely made learning as conscious presentation of grammatical forms or lexical items which did not adequately prepare learners for the effective and appropriate use of language in natural communication. Therefore, many CLT proponents neglected linguistic competence and accepted the premise that linguistic form emerges on its own as a result of learners' engaging in communicative activities. However, in practice, instead make learning efficient, communicative activities make learner pay attention to and practice the objective; learning is merely an automatic process. In addition, it takes a longer time than learning based on linguistic competence which is then believed can greatly increase the rate of language attainment by making learners aware of structural regularities and formal properties of the target language. Finally, linguists argued that communicative competence is a matter of knowing a stock of partially pre-assembled patterns, formulaic frameworks, and a kit of rules, so to speak, and being able to apply the rules to make whatever adjustments are necessary according to contextual standards. In sum, a turning point of CLT is explicit, direct elements which are gaining significance in teaching communicative abilities and skills.

The authors put themselves in this article as initiators for further discussion towards CLT. They discuss the two main issue of CLT: the linguistic content base of CLT and the pedagogical treatment of linguistic forms in CLT, to explain clearer information about the turning point of CLT.

I agree that CLT using indirect approach which is engaging students to do conversation and excluding to teach grammar will make students merely do an automatic process of communication.  They cannot produce a new utterance because they aren’t given the pattern of the language.

I’ve ever read a book of CLT. The book provides the same information as in this article that the term of ‘communicative’ had been shared widely with different meaning which comes up to general meaning that communicative is to engage students in conversation. For example, teachers have already been said using CLT if they make students communicate. There are no firm linguistic guidelines of CLT.

The Teaching of Grammar by Otto Jeppersen

Article                         : The Teaching of Grammar by Otto Jeppersen

Date Published            : 20/12/2008, The English Journal          

  

The purpose of this article is to attain how to approach the ideal of teaching grammar. The author asserts that teaching grammar should be made as interesting and stimulating as possible, as easy and simple as possible, concrete instead of abstract, useful and at the same time scientifically sound. It is in contrast to teaching pure grammar which is abstract, lifeless and has no practical value at all. Pure grammar concerns with the essential modes of thought of all peoples; whatever languages they may speak and although the languages have changed, the structure of their thought remains the same. In other word, pure grammar treats all languages alike, hiding away the differences between them. Realizing that the grammatical forms vary from language to language; pure grammar is then identified with a grammar of function which seems universally same. Consequently, teaching pure grammar pays too much attention to definitions which are neither exhaustive nor true. The author argues that if grammar is to be real grammar, it must face the realities of life; teaching grammar is to teach the way in which native speaker express their thoughts and build up their sentences. In order to do that learner must take into account all three elements: not only its functions but also its forms and inner meanings which are inseparable.So, the best way of teaching English grammar is teaching concrete English grammar, not abstract grammar in the clouds. It should deal with the children's own language and show them how that is constructed, and how it serves to express thoughts which the children can understand. They should be made unconsciously see the rules they have already learned and follow unconsciously; and these rules should not be given to them as something to be learned by rote, but as far as possible they must be discovered by the pupils themselves under the guidance of the teacher. In sum, teaching grammar is absolutely to be preferred to the deductive method.

The author put himself in contrast to theory of teaching pure grammar which treats all languages alike; hiding away the differences between them. Consequently teaching pure grammar is abstract, lifeless, and has no practical value at all. He then purposes his opinion that teaching grammar should be real; teaching grammar is to teach the way in which native speaker express their thoughts and build up their sentences.

I think that teaching real grammar is only useful for native speaker because real teaching grammar deals with the children's own language as a base on teaching grammar by showing them how the language is constructed, and how it serves to express thoughts which the children can understand. Yet, for second and foreign language learners, teaching pure grammar will have great benefit to increase the rate of language attainment by making them aware of structural regularities and formal properties of the target language which have been standardized by pure grammar.

        

    Mostly, in Indonesia, teachers teach pure grammar. They teach students the standard of English. It’s true that, in practice, teaching pure grammar is abstract, lifeless and has no practical value at all. However, it is useful to give students a base pattern for producing and understanding utterances.

What is Academic Vocabulary? by James F. Baumann and Michael F. Graves

What is Academic Vocabulary?

James F. Baumann and Michael F. Graves

Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy

The purpose of this article is to define academic vocabulary. First, the authors attempted to bring some clarity to literary vocabulary and academic language which were then placed within academic domain knowledge. Second, they compared and contrasted definitions of specific and general academic vocabulary. Third, they reviewed typologies that Fisher and Frey; Harmon, Wood, and Hedrick; as well as Hiebert and Lubliner have proposed to organize academic vocabulary. Finally, they considered some of the procedures Graves, Fisher and Frey, as well as Marzano and Pickering which have recommended for identifying academic vocabulary for instruction. The result is a scheme for classifying and selecting academic vocabulary for instruction. The classification of academic vocabulary is fallen into five types. The first type is domain-specific academic vocabulary. It is the relatively low-frequency, content-specific words and phrases that appear in content area textbooks and other technical writing materials. The second type is general academic vocabulary. It is words that appear reason ably frequently within and across academic domains. The third type is literary vocabulary. It is words that authors of literature use to describe characters, settings, and characters' problems and actions. The fourth type is Meta language. It is terms used to describe the language of literacy and literacy instruction and words used to describe processes, structures, or concepts commonly included in content area texts. The last type is symbols. It is icons, emoticons, graphics, mathematical notations, electronic symbols, and so forth that are not conventional words. In sum, academic vocabulary is vocabulary that includes in the five types of the authors’ scheme.

The authors put themselves as informants in this article. They give their scheme for classifying and selecting academic vocabulary for instruction. They give their pattern of thought how they produce the scheme. They collect all information about definitions of academic vocabulary, typologies, and procedure for identifying academic vocabulary, after that they analyze them.

At first, this classification seems perfect. Yet, after I reread again, I found that Meta language can be included into domain-specific academic vocabulary or literary vocabulary; because based on the definition of meta language, vocabulary of meta language can be found in literary textbook and the vocabulary used to describe the language of literacy and literacy instruction. It means that the function of Meta language is almost the same as literary vocabulary. In addition, Meta language used to describe processes, structures, or concepts commonly included in content area. This function is almost the same as domain-specific vocabulary which refers to relatively low-frequency, content-specific words and phrases that appear in content area textbooks and other technical writing materials.

I always do the same step for defining something as what this article did. I collect all information about the definition of the thing I want to define. Then I analyze them and finally make my own definition.

Trace by Patricia Cornwell

Book Title : TRACE 

Author : Patricia Cornwell 

Publisher : Barkley 

Date Published : 2004 

Number of Pages : 401 

Genre : Crime 

 Book Code : NV/0842 

          The main characters of this novel are Kay Scarpetta-Chief Medical Examiner for the city of Richmond; Pete Marino, Kay’s partner who is a Detective with the Richmond PD; and Lucy Farinelli, Kay’s niece who is more like her daughter and a school kid. Kay was asked to investigate a corpse of 14 year old girl. After that she found that the girl was murdered then she tried to investigate the murder. Lucy Farinelli, who has grown from chubby schoolgirl to FBI Agent, then runs a private investigative service called The Last Precinct, where Pete Marino is now working for her; tried to investigate a person who tried to kill her lover. Unexpectedly, the murder was the same person of whom Kay was seeking. 

            I like the part when the murderer can be known because it makes my curiosity release from my mind. Actually the murderer is one of Kay’s former staff members. He sought revenge against Dr. Kay and her niece called Lucy for causing his disability such as a lung condition which makes him difficult to breathe. 

               I still feel confused why the mother of the murdered girl, Susan did a strange behavior, such as after she had done a sexual role play with Pete Marino based on her willing and there’s no force to her, Susan instead lied and accused Pete having raped her. This strange behavior from the bereaved mother drew her into the investigation as a suspect or accessory to the crime. I think she’s mentally ill. 

             I don’t like the part when Pete Marino was not consistent on his main purpose coming to Susan’s home. He did a sexual role play with her instead of just investigating her about her daughter’s death. In short, instead of solving the problem, Pete added a new problem by doing that. He was accused of having raped her. 

          I have heard some experiences related revenge but in another case, such as: being hurt by his employer, an employee killed his boss. 

             If I had a right to change this novel, especially the fate of the employee, I would make the employee have a brave not for revenge instead of for talking and demanding money as an expense for having made him be a disable person. Moreover, I would make Kay’s more opened eyes toward her employees by taking her care of them. Therefore, this criminality would not happen. 

            The issue raised in this novel is about an employee’s revenge toward his employer who had made him be a disable person. The employee sought revenge against Dr. Scarpetta and her niece, Lucy. He made some attempt to satisfying his revenge such as by mostly killing Lucy’s lover called henry; and having burnt Gilly’s house. 

            The moral value of this novel is that do revenge is a worthless effort. It adds worse thing rather than satisfying the person. For example, the employee made himself in a dangerous position by killing another person. Maybe at first, he felt satisfied but at the end he will be disappointed because of what he had done. For example, at the end, the murder could be known. He are then put in jail. That’s a bad ending for him.

Descent from Xanadu by Harrold Robbins

Book Title : Descent From Xanadu

Author : Harrold Robbins 

Publisher : New English Library 

Date Published : 1984 

 Number of Pages : 332 

Genre : Science Fiction 

Book Code : NV/0803 

DESCENT FROM XANADU BY HARROLD ROBBINS

           The main character of this novel is Judd Crane, a man who had power, wealth and women. He dominated the world-wide web of his business empire, even governments bowed before his financial. There was nothing he could not control, except his life. To get his immortality, Judd asked a help from another character called Dr. Zabiski, the world’s expert on rejuvenation therapy. Being offered five millions dollars, Dr. Zabiski then did an experiment to overcome the unstopped descent into old age. She had done all her effort toward medical and technological aspects. However, they were negated by Judd’s life style. She then suggested another way before dying that was control total environment. With all knowledge that he got from Dr. Zabiski he then made a new city. Being helped by another character called Sofia, a woman he loved and had great knowledge to achieve his purpose; he could produce what was called Xanadu, a machine that could make someone live forever. 

            I like the author’s idea in this novel because it really draws the image of human being that is never satisfied. It leads me to my imagination and it is so logic that if all the things human needs are already completed and make them happy to live in the world. Then, they will not want to leave their world such as what Judd’s will, he wanted to live forever. However, how could human avoid their fate of death and make them live forever? This question for the author’s idea really increases my will to read more. 

           I was confused how they made a thing called Xanadu could make human live forever. This tool is really confusing me. They said that it was made from DNA genetic engineering process which can create an artificial human cell clone. Whatever that, I really don’t understand. Moreover, at the end, Judd Crane didn’t use Xanadu instead he erased all information tapes of Xanadu because he preferred to live with Sofia instead of living alone by using Xanadu. So, it means that all the efforts he did are not used. It’s wasting time I think. 

           I don’t like all the part that told about sex in this novel because it so vulgar such as the character called Judd, a man who was sexually magnetic, often did a sex that was exposed in this novel. 

            As a human I feel the same feeling as what Judd Crane feels-that is human being is never satisfied. For example, when I have one thousand rupiahs, I want to get more; I want to get a hundred thousand rupiahs. Then, when I already get a hundred thousand rupiah, I want to get five hundred thousand rupiahs and so on. 

           If I had a chance to change this novel I would change the end of this novel. Maybe, I would make Judd Crane use Xanadu therefore he could live forever. After that I would make him to be bad person and there would be a person that would help the country. Then for further story would be made to the next chapter or another novel. I think it would make all his efforts useful for him and make this novel more interesting. 

            The larger issue in this novel is an attempt to formulate things that can make human immortal. At first, it seems impossible to make human immortal. The first experiment was considered on chemical and technological aspect, however it is failed. After that, the doctor told Judd to control his total environment. With all knowledge he had, Judd made his new country and also a thing that called Xanadu, DNA genetic engineering process to create an artificial human cell clone in order to make human live forever together with Sofia. In short, this novel mainly considers that human can make a tool that makes human live forever. 

The moral value of this novel is that human being doesn’t ever feel satisfied. For example, Judd Crane is a man which is full up with power, wealth and women. I think if he felt satisfied of what he had, he would never think to make himself live forever. However, he asked Dr. Zabiski to make a thing that makes human live forever.